Tag: decision problems

What Makes A Problem NP-complete?

A problem is called NP (nondeterministic polynomial) if its solution can be guessed and verified in ; nondeterministic means that no particular rule is followed to make the guess. If a problem is NP and

all other NP

How do you prove a problem is NP-complete?

Suppose X is solvable in polytime, and let Y be any problem in NP. We can solve Y in polynomial time: reduce it to X. Therefore, every problem in NP has a polytime algorithm and

P = NP

. then X is NP-complete.

Are problems in P NP-complete?

NP-hard problems are those at least as hard as NP problems; i.e., all NP problems can be reduced (in polynomial time) to them. … If any NP-complete problem is in P, then it would follow that

P = NP

. However, many important problems have been shown to be NP-complete, and no fast algorithm for any of them is known.

Can NP problems be solved?

If an NP-complete problem can be

solved in polynomial time

then all problems in NP can be solved in polynomial time. If a problem in NP cannot be solved in polynomial time then all problems in NP-complete cannot be solved in polynomial time. Note that an NP-complete problem is one of those hardest problems in NP.

Which of the following problem is NP-complete?

Explanation:

Hamiltonian , , partition problems

are NP complete problems.

What is NP-hard problem with example?

An example of an NP-hard problem is

the decision subset sum problem

: given a set of integers, does any non-empty subset of them add up to zero? That is a and happens to be NP-complete.

What does it mean if Q is NP-hard?

A problem is NP-hard if an algorithm for solving it can be translated into one for solving any NP- problem (nondeterministic polynomial time) problem. NP-hard therefore means “at

least as hard as any NP-problem

,” although it might, in fact, be harder.

What happens if P vs NP is solved?

If P equals NP,

every NP problem would contain a hidden shortcut

, allowing computers to quickly find perfect solutions to them. But if P does not equal NP, then no such shortcuts exist, and computers’ problem-solving powers will remain fundamentally and permanently limited.

What is N and P NP-complete problems?

P is a set of problems that can be solved by a deterministic Turing machine in Polynomial time.

NP is set of

that can be solved by a Non-deterministic Turing Machine in Polynomial time. … NP-complete problems are the hardest problems in the NP set.

Which type of problem may be NP-hard?

A problem is NP-hard if all problems in

NP are polynomial time reducible to it

, even though it may not be in NP itself. If a polynomial time algorithm exists for any of these problems, all problems in NP would be polynomial time solvable.

How do you solve NP-hard problems?

NP-Hard problems(say X) can be solved if and only if there is a NP-Complete problem(say Y) that can be reducible into X in polynomial time. NP-Complete problems can be solved by

a non-deterministic Algorithm/Turing Machine in polynomial time

. To solve this problem, it do not have to be in NP .

Is chess an NP problem?

For two-player games, one encounters a similar phenomenon at a higher level of . … For this reason games like

chess cannot themselves be NP-complete

, as they only have a finite (albeit unthinkably large) number of possible positions.

Is Travelling salesman problem NP-complete?

Traveling Salesman Optimization(TSP-OPT) is a NP-hard problem and

Traveling Salesman Search(TSP) is NP-complete

. However, TSP-OPT can be reduced to TSP since if TSP can be solved in polynomial time, then so can TSP-OPT(1).

Are NP hard problems solvable?

This is known as Cook’s theorem. What makes NP-complete problems important is that if a deterministic polynomial time algorithm can be found to solve one of them,

every NP problem is solvable in polynomial time

(one problem to rule them all).

How many NP-complete problems are there?

This list is in no way comprehensive (there are

more than 3000 known NP-complete problems

). Most of the problems in this list are taken from Garey and Johnson’s seminal book Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness, and are here presented in the same order and organization.

Why is knapsack problem NP hard?

the time needed increases in exponential term, so it’s a NPC problem. This is because the knapsack problem

has a pseudo-polynomial solution

and is thus called weakly NP-Complete (and not strongly NP-Complete).

Who Made The Trolley Problem?


English philosopher Philippa Foot

is credited with introducing this version of the problem in 1967, though another philosopher, Judith Thomson

What is the correct answer to the trolley problem?

So, what is one to do? Foot’s own response to the Trolley Problem was that

the morally justified action would be to steer the trolley to kill the one workman, thus saving a net four lives

.

What is the Trolley Problem utilitarianism?

The trolley thought experiment has a fundamental purpose. … The trolley problem highlights a fundamental tension between two schools of . The utilitarian perspective dictates that

the most appropriate action is the one that achieves the greatest good for the greatest number

.

Why did Philippa Foot created the Trolley Problem?

Philippa Foot introduced this genre of decision in 1967

as part of an analysis of debates on abortion and the doctrine of double effect

. … Earlier forms of individual trolley scenarios antedated Foot’s publication.

Who created the trolley car?

Early streetcars were either horse-drawn or depended for power on storage batteries that were expensive and inefficient. In 1834

Thomas Davenport

, a blacksmith from Brandon, Vermont, U.S., built a small battery-powered electric motor and used it to operate a small car on a short section of track.

What is the trolley problem an example of?

The trolley problem is a

thought experiment in ethics

about a fictional scenario in which an onlooker has the choice to save 5 people in danger of being hit by a trolley, by diverting the trolley to kill just 1 person.

Is the trolley problem useful?

The morality of actions cannot just be decided by public votes. Yet, despite all its shortcomings, the Trolley Problem

remains an exciting and useful approach

. It is extremely unlikely someone will ever encounter a situation where a fat man could be thrown from a bridge in order to save five people.

What is a good example of utilitarianism?

When individuals are deciding what to do for themselves alone, they consider only their own utility. For example, if you are choosing

ice cream for yourself

, the utilitarian view is that you should choose the flavor that will give you the most pleasure.

What question does the Trolley Problem raise?

To the wider world, and perhaps especially to undergraduate philosophy students, she is best known for inventing the Trolley Problem, which raises the

question of why it seems permissible to steer a trolley aimed at five people toward one person while it seems impermissible to do something such as killing one healthy

…

What did Philippa Foot say about the Trolley Problem?

Philippa Foot had said that

we had the intuition to turn the trolley in the first trolley case because it was injury/injury

, and therefore we should minimize the injury to as few people as possible. Judith Jarvis Thomson, in her paper “The Trolley Problem”, adds the example of the fat man (among many other variations).

What does foot mean by practical rationality?

To meet the challenge, Foot embarks on a discussion of practical , or the

nature and provenance of human reasoning

. Foot argues that an objective theory of morality can establish an intelligible connection between objective moral evaluations and what we have reason to do as individuals.

What is the difference between a streetcar and a trolley?

Unlike the mechanical cable cars streetcars are propelled by

onboard electric motors

and require a trolley pole to draw power from an overhead wire. Trolleys looks like regular buses but they are completely electric and have twin poles on the roof of the bus that draw power from double overhead wires.

What does a question like the trolley problem teach us?

The trolley problem is a

question of human morality

, and an example of a philosophical view called consequentialism. This view says that morality is defined by the consequences of an action, and that the consequences are all that matter. … It’s a question of human morality.

What is an example of moral dilemma?

A is a conflict of morals, where you are forced to choose between two or more options and you have a moral reason to choose and not choose each option. … An example of a moral dilemma is

having to choose between saving a dog from a fire or saving your sister

.

What type of dilemma is the Trolley Problem?

The “Trolley Dilemma’ is

an ethical thought experiment where there is a runaway trolley moving down railway tracks

. In its path, there are five people tied up and unable to move and the trolley is heading straight for them. People are told that they are standing some distance off in the train yard, next to a lever.

Where does the trolley problem come from?

The “trolley problem” is generally believed to have been

invented by an English philosopher by the name of Philippa Foot

. She was born in 1920 and taught for many years at Oxford. The trolley problem was further developed and made popular by another woman philosopher, Judith Jarvis Thomson, who teaches at M. I. T.

How Do You Make An Informed Decision?

  1. Identify the problem. …
  2. Collect data and information. …
  3. Brainstorm all possible alternatives. …
  4. Weigh the alternatives. …
  5. Take your pick. …
  6. Enact a plan. …
  7. Review the decision.

What does it mean to make an informed decision?

:

a decision based on facts or information voters making

.

How are informed decisions made?

  • Identify the problem. …
  • Collect data and information. …
  • Brainstorm all possible alternatives. …
  • Weigh the alternatives. …
  • Take your pick. …
  • Enact a plan. …
  • Review the decision.

Why is it important to make an informed decision?

Why is it important? There are many benefits of making informed decisions, such as

increased knowledge

, sense of self-confidence, satisfaction with your care, and decreased anxiety and feelings of conflict about your decision.

What is an example of an informed decision?

The definition of informed is based on a lot of information. An example of informed is

someone making the decision to attend a certain school after researching what the school has to offer them

; an .

What are the obstacles to informed decision making?


Lack of reliable data

can be a major hindrance in making . Ambiguous and incomplete data often makes it difficult for them to make an appropriate decision, which may not be the best suited for any organization. Any decision attracts a fair deal of risk of resulting into negative outcome.

What are 5 keys to making a well informed decision?

  1. Step 1: Identify Your Goal. One of the most effective strategies is to keep an eye on your goal. …
  2. Step 2: Gather Information for Weighing Your Options. …
  3. Step 3: Consider the Consequences. …
  4. Step 4: Make Your Decision. …
  5. Step 5: Evaluate Your Decision.

What makes a good decision?

A good decision is one that is

made deliberately and thoughtfully, considers and includes all relevant factors

, is consistent with the individual’s philosophy and values, and can be explained clearly to significant others.

How do people make decisions?

Our brains usually run on

autopilot

when we make decisions, despite fooling us into believing that we know exactly what we are doing. However, our decisions are more often swayed by emotions, social bias and social influences than we may like to believe.

What is an educated decision?

When you make an educated decision about something,

you’ve learned about the subject before making up your mind

— you’ve been educated or educated yourself, and you understand it completely. An educated conversation or debate about a topic is one in which both sides have knowledge about the issues.

How do you use informed decision in a sentence?

And they could have made an informed decision about whether to have another child.

An informed decision about invasive testing must be made

. This may mean the patient needs further information in order to be able to make an informed decision about consent.

Is informed by meaning?

When you’re informed, you have all the information or knowledge that you need. … Informed is from the verb inform, “

give someone facts or information

,” from the Latin informare, which literally means “to form,” and is figuratively used to mean “to educate.”

Which leadership skills are needed for making informed decision?

  • Problem-solving skills.
  • Logical reasoning.
  • Emotional Intelligence.
  • Collaboration.
  • Creativity.
  • Confront most stressful decisions first.
  • Ask for honest feedback from the team.
  • Remember to connect with the end goal.

What are the two different types of decision problems?

strategy-oriented decision are usually directed at “how” planned change should be implemented and focus on making decisions. What are the fundamental characteristics of the two types of ?

origin, , research problem(s), use, targets and their subgroups, and logistics

.

How do you challenge a decision?

verb. If you challenge ideas or people, you

question their truth, value, or authority

.

Why is it so difficult to make a decision?

Making

decisions will always be difficult because it takes time and energy to weigh your options

. Things like second-guessing yourself and feeling indecisive are just a part of the process. In many ways, they’re a good thing—a sign that you’re thinking about your choices instead of just going with the flow.

Is Circuit Sat NP-complete?

Theorem 1

-SAT is NP-complete

. Proof It is clear that CIRCUIT-SAT is in NP since a nondeterministic machine can guess an assignment and then evaluate the circuit in . … And C can be constructed in polynomial time given the length of x and y.

Is Circuit sat an NP?

Given a circuit and a satisfying set of inputs, one can compute the output of each gate in constant time. Hence, the output of the circuit is verifiable in polynomial time. Thus

Circuit SAT belongs to class NP

. To show NP-hardness, it is possible to construct a reduction from 3SAT to Circuit SAT.

Is SAT problem NP-complete?

There are two parts to proving that the Boolean problem (SAT)

is NP-complete

. … SAT is in NP because any assignment of Boolean values to Boolean variables that is claimed to satisfy the given expression can be verified in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine.

Is monotone circuit sat NP-complete?

Theorem 1

CIRCUIT-SAT is NP-complete

. Proof It is clear that CIRCUIT-SAT is in NP since a nondeterministic machine can guess an assignment and then evaluate the circuit in polynomial time. … And C can be constructed in polynomial time given the length of x and y.

Why is SAT problem NP-complete?

The satisfiability problem (SAT) is

to determine whether a given boolean expression is satisfiable

. … SAT can be used to prove that other are NP complete by showing that the other problem is in NP and that SAT can be reduced to the other problem in polynomial time.

Can every NP problem be reduced to SAT?

Let’s start here: It is said that

all NP problems can be reduced to SAT

(boolean satisfiability problem

Is 3 SAT NP-complete?

But, in reality, 3-SAT is just as difficult as SAT; the restriction to 3 literals per clause makes no difference. … Theorem. 3-SAT is NP-complete.

Is the satisfiability problem known to be in NP or only conjectured to be in NP?

Is the satisfiability problem known to be in NP, or only conjectured to be in NP? The satisfiability problem is known to be in NP. There is a nondeterministic polynomial time algorithm for it.

Can NP problems be solved in polynomial time?

If a problem in

NP cannot be solved in polynomial time

then all problems in NP-complete cannot be solved in polynomial time. Note that an NP-complete problem is one of those hardest problems in NP.

What is the class of decision problems that can be solved by non deterministic polynomial algorithm?

Explanation:

NP problems

Why is SAT not in P?

There might be some polynomial time algorithm that does solve SAT, we don’t know, however SAT is NP-complete, which gives

strong evidence that there isn’t a polynomial time algorithm

. It all comes down to whether P=NP or not.

Is NP equal to P?

6 Answers. P stands for polynomial time. NP stands for

non-deterministic polynomial time

.

Under which situation a problem belongs to the class NP?

NP-complete problem, any of a class of

What is NP-hard problem with example?

Examples. An example of an NP-hard problem is the

decision subset sum problem

: given a set of integers, does any non-empty subset of them add up to zero? That is a and happens to be NP-complete.

Are NP problems solvable?

The short answer is that

if a problem is in NP, it is indeed solvable

.

Is traveling salesman NP-complete?

Traveling Salesman Optimization(TSP-OPT) is a NP-hard problem and

Traveling Salesman Search(TSP) is NP-complete

. However, TSP-OPT can be reduced to TSP since if TSP can be solved in polynomial time, then so can TSP-OPT(1).

What Are The Advantages Of Rational Decision Making?

Advantages. The rational approach to decisions is based on scientifically obtained data that

allow -making

, reducing the chances of errors, distortions, assumptions, guesswork, subjectivity, and all major causes for poor or inequitable judgments.

What is rational decision making?

Rational is

a multi-step process for making choices between alternatives

. The process of making favors logic, objectivity, and analysis over subjectivity and insight. The word “rational” in this context does not mean sane or clear-headed as it does in the colloquial sense.

What is the impact of rational decision making model?

A rational decision making model provides

a structured and sequenced approach to decision making

. Using such an approach can help to ensure discipline and consistency is built into your decision making process. As the word rational suggests, this approach brings logic and order to decision making.

What is an example of rational decision making?

The idea that individuals will always make rational, cautious and logical decisions is known as the rational choice theory. An example of a rational choice would be

an investor choosing one stock over another because they believe it offers a higher return

. Savings may also play into .

Is rational decision making good?

Data, Logic, and Facts

Rational decision making is defined not only by

adherence to a careful process

, but also by a logical, data-driven manner of following the steps of that process. The process can be time-consuming and costly. It is generally not worthwhile on everyday decisions.

What are the weaknesses of rational choice theory?

Another weakness of rational choice theory is that

it doesn’t account for intuitive reasoning or instinct

. For decisions that must be made in an instant, such as decisions that influence survival, there may not be time to weigh the costs and benefits.

How is bounded rationality related to decision making?

Bounded is a human decision-making process in which we attempt to satisfice, rather than optimize. In other words,

we seek a decision that will be good enough, rather than the best possible decision

.

Which of the following is the first step in rational decision making?


Identifying a few possible courses of action

is the first step involved in the rational decision making process. The bounded rationality framework contends that individuals make decisions under conditions of certainty. Intuitive decision making often emerges from subconscious activity.

What it means to be rational?

1a :

having reason or understanding

. b : relating to, based on, or agreeable to reason : reasonable a rational explanation rational behavior. 2 : involving only multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction and only a finite number of times.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of being rational in making decisions?

Advantages. The rational approach to decisions is based on

scientifically obtained data that allow informed decision-making

, reducing the chances of errors, distortions, assumptions, guesswork, subjectivity, and all major causes for poor or inequitable judgments.

What is the importance of decision making?

Decision-making is perhaps the most

important component of a manager’s activities

. It plays the most important role in the planning process. When the managers plan, they decide on many matters as what goals their organisation will pursue, what resources they will use, and who will perform each required task.

How do you use rational decision making?

  1. Define the problem.
  2. Identify the decision criteria.
  3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
  4. Develop the alternatives.
  5. Evaluate the alternatives.
  6. Select the best alternative.

What is the difference between rational and intuitive decision making?

Rational Decision Making: The logical way to solving . Intuitive Decision Making: The

decision making done mentally

, without calculations, systems and methods supported.

What are the types of decision making?

  • Routine and Basic Decision Making. …
  • Personal and Organizational Decision Making. …
  • Individual and Group Decision Making. …
  • Policy and Operating Decision Making. …
  • Programmed and Non-Programmed Decision Making. …
  • Planned and Unplanned Decision Making. …
  • Tactical and Strategic Decision Making.

What are the 3 concepts of rational choice theory?

Rational choice theory looks at three concepts:

rational actors, self interest and the invisible hand

. Rationality can be used as an assumption for the behaviour of individuals in a wide range of contexts outside of economics.

What are the key elements of rational choice theory?

The key elements of all rational choice explanations are

individual preferences, beliefs, and constraints

.

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